Strategic Management Approaches to Ethics
Strategic management seeks to maximize organizational efficiency and profitability by making decisions that consistently strive toward that goal. Public relations executives acting as strategy advisors and ethics counselors to senior management is a role that is supported in research findings regarding the practice and in theory. How they can implement this responsibility ethically and with reasoned approaches has been studied from various strategic management perspectives.
J. E. Grunig (1992b) proposed that linkages with publics could be used to facilitate organizational decision making in a balanced, symmetrical manner. Grunig’s idea of symmetry is that organizations accomplish more of their long term goals when they integrate some of what publics want, meaning that management engages in an ongoing relationship of give-and-take with publics. Grunig and his colleagues (Dozier, L. A. Grunig, & J. E. Grunig, 1995; L. A. Grunig, Grunig, & Dozier, 2002) in this line of research maintained that symmetrical communication is inherently ethical. They elucidated: “The two-way symmetrical model avoids the problem of ethical relativism because it defines ethics as a process of public relations rather than an outcome” (J. E. Grunig & L. A. Grunig, 1992, p. 308).
These researchers (J. E. Grunig & L. A. Grunig, 1996) maintained that a strategic management approach is consistent with teleological moral philosophy, commonly known as utilitarianism, because of its emphasis on consequences. Both utilitarian philosophy and relationships with publics are seen in terms of their consequences and potential outcomes. In utilitarianism the ethical decision is defined as that which maximizes positive consequences and minimizes negative outcomes. In the utilitarian approach to ethics, a weighing of potential decisions and their likely consequences is the ethical analysis used to determine right or wrong. Strategic management also attempts to predict potential consequences of management decisions and thus is a natural fit with utilitarian ethics.
Also based on the strategic management approach, Bivins (1992) developed a systems model for ethical decision making. General systems theory views the organization as an open and interdependent system dependent on interactions with its environment for survival. Publics are viewed as a vital part of the environment providing information inputs and feedback to management. He argued that maintaining a process of ethical decision making in management could help the organization have successful interactions with its environment. As a routine part of the management system, ethical considerations could receive more thorough and common examination than when left to chance. Along similar lines, Tilley (2005) encouraged including ethical standards in the strategic management of public relations campaigns including “formalizing ethics as part of campaign measurement” (p. 317).
Building on a strategic management paradigm, Bowen’s (2004a) research sought to strengthen ethical analyses by incorporating deontological philosophy into public relations. She linked this philosophical approach to Grunig’s research on two-way symmetrical communication described above. Deontological moral philosophy, based on the work of German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) (http://www.sandiego.edu/naks/) seeks to discover underlying moral principles upon which any rational decision maker would make the same choice. According to the useful Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http://www.iep.utm.edu/k/kantmeta.htm), “Deontology is the study of duty” and deems ethical only acts with a purely good motive. It is a valuable addition to the knowledge of a public relations professional because it yields more rational, defensible, and enduring decisions than less-rigorous analyses. To implement a deontological analysis of public relations ethics one must attempt to be as autonomous, unbiased and objective as possible. Potential decisions must be examined from all angles. Research (C. B. Pratt, Im, & Montague, 1994) shows that public relations professionals employ this form of analysis more frequently as they advance to higher levels in their careers. For a good overview of implementing deontology see (Bowen, 2008).
Practical Recommendations and Guidelines for Practitioners
This review of current, cutting-edge, and historical research in public relations ethics is worth little if public relations professionals do not implement ethical analyses in their daily practice. We can contribute to more socially responsible and credible organizations, but only if we take the steps necessary to make our voices heard in the dominant coalition. Public relations professionals should be the ones to alert senior management when ethical issues arise. Public relations counselors should also know the values of both internal and external publics, and use these in astute analyses and ultimate resolutions of ethical dilemmas. At any level of one’s career it is never too early or too late to implement the following guidelines:
1.The first thing to be concluded from studying ethical cases is that communication professionals must pay attention to ethics before they desperately need it. Once a crisis of conflicting ethics or high media interest befalls the organization it is too late to begin searching for ethical guidance. Professional communicators must be conversant with the value systems of their organizations before these values are publicly called into question. Advising the dominant coalition requires great attention to research, input, organization values, knowledge of the values of strategic publics, potential consequences, and an ability to apply rigorous forms of ethical analyses. Public relations professionals should begin studying ethics now, before you “must” address a problem, and as soon as possible. To do so will not only improve the decisions made in your public relations department but also will allow and encourage advancement in your career. You will find an annotated bibliography at the end of this article, after its references, which can guide you in further reading on public relations ethics.
2.Know your own values. Taking a thorough and systematic look at the values you hold and espouse as a person and a public relations practitioner will help you when you are “under the gun” being pressured by a supervisor, client, or someone else. Listing the most important qualities of an admired person or mentor is a productive exercise, as well as listing the values that you hold most dear. Researchers (Ladkin, 2006) call this exercise “attending to one’s own values” and it is important to help you articulate your beliefs and reasoning, as well as stand your ground when your reasoning is challenged. Matching your own values to those espoused by your employer or client means that you have a solid relationship on which to build your professional practice. Otherwise, you might have to become an “activist” for ethics in your organization or seek employment in an environment more congruent with your own values (Berger & Reber, 2006).
3.Spot and discuss ethical issues. Issues management (Heath, 1997), as the primary function that seeks out and resolves problems before they become crises, is an area with a natural propensity to identify perplexing ethical situations. Public relations professionals should study the academic research and best practices of issues management to best prepare themselves to engage ethical issues. Research (Bowen, 2002b) has found that identifying issues that will become ethical problems is one of the most challenging aspects of issues management. Failing to identify an ethical issue before it is acted upon can result in costly failures for the organization, both in terms of operational cost in the resulting loss of reputation as an ethical organization. Being hyper-vigilant on the early identification of ethical issues allows more time for their analysis, research, discussion, and resolution than does waiting until one is identified by a public or by the media. Early identification also allows the organization to take a proactive stance to defining and managing the issue, rather than a reactionary stance when it is defined by others. Additionally, self-vigilant awareness of such issues is the ethically responsible approach for an organization, showing a willingness to resolve problematic issues as a responsible organization and morally good intentions.
4.Time and time again research finds that organizational culture has a significant impact on ethical analyses and decision making (Bowen, 2004b; Goodpaster, 2007; Sims, 1994; Sims & Brinkman, 2003). Public relations professionals should identify the underlying values in the organization’s mission statement, code of ethics, or other policy document. You should identify the approach in ethics closest to existing organizational values. Those mentioning the greater good, benefit of society, or consequences of operating are most likely utilitarian. Statements echoing duty, justice, fairness, responsibility, or intention are deontological. Identifying these core values of the organization is key in instilling a more widely ethical organizational culture. They also indicate the means of ethical analysis that will be most effective in resolving dilemmas for management since it is congruent with the values of the organization. The public relations function can encourage ethical debate and consideration through the organization by using internal communication to focus on these issues. Leaders should strive to display and act on ethical values (Berger & Reber, 2006; Goodpaster, 2007). Research (Bowen, 2004b) in this area shows that in order to foster excellence in ethics, the internal communications of the public relations function should teach employees what is to be considered when confronting and ethical dilemma, reward ethical behavior, encourage the defining of issues in ethical terms, and encourage an atmosphere of open ethical debate. Confronting management with evidence that an organizational culture supporting ethics averts disasters of the Enron variety might garner rekindled support for an organizational ethics initiative.
5.Educating decision makers in the organization, specifically the CEO and dominant coalition, of the abilities if the public relations function to engage in ethical advisement by using issues management, research, relationships with publics, and conflict resolution should be one of the primary responsibilities of communication executives. Most chief executives originate from financial or engineering backgrounds, and no little or nothing about the capabilities of public relations beyond media relations. So, it is the responsibility of the public relations practitioner to educate him or her about the many ways that public relations can contribute to the success of the organization, including solving and preventing ethical dilemmas. Educating the CEO and other dominant coalition members in the organization is one of the primary routes through which practitioners in the IABC study said they achieved membership in the strategic decision making core. Therefore, this recommendation also serves to empower the public relations function within an organization and to foster high-level career access for practitioners.
6.Engage in systematic and analytical means of contemplating ethical dilemmas. The use of moral philosophy lends rigorous, systematic, and consistent methods of ethical analyses and decisions in public relations. The measurement or “yard stick” for what is value or good in the organization should be carefully defined before engaging in ethical analyses. Mission statements are often the best guide to what is valued, rewarded, or sought. A mission statement is normally the best place to begin defining the ethical values present in the organization. These ethical values can then be explicated in the form of an ethics statement, a code of conduct, an ethics code, a credo, or other codified policies. To enhance the consistency of organizational policies, issue resolutions, and increase the longevity of managerial decisions, ethical analyses should always begin with the core values stated in the organization’s mission. Ethical counsel of the dominant coalition often requires what ethicists call ‘moral courage’ (Parks, 1993) in the sense that you must be willing to argue for your analysis even when it is unpopular with other organizational functions. Even if your solution is not implemented, the counsel of public relations will be respected and sought in the future. Unpopular solutions to ethical dilemmas often prove their wisdom over the course of time, as well. Offering consistent reliable analyses is one way to enhance both personal credibility and that of the public relations function within the organization.
Conclusion
The ability to engage in ethical reasoning in public relations is growing in demand, in responsibility, and in importance. Academic research, university and continuing education, and professional practice are all attending more than ever to matters of ethics. The public relations function stands at a critical and defining juncture: whether to become an ethics counselor to top management or to remain outside the realm of the strategic decision making core. How we choose to respond to the crisis of trust among our publics will define the public relations of the future.
Although it is true that no single person or function can be the entire “ethical conscience” of an organization, the public relations function is ideally informed to counsel top management about ethical issues. Public relations professionals know the values of key publics involved with ethical dilemmas, and can conduct rigorous ethical analyses to guide the policies of their organizations, as well as in communications with publics and the news media. Careful and consistent ethical analyses facilitate trust, which enhances the building and maintenance of relationships – after all, that is the ultimate purpose of the public relations function.
Author Note
This article was funded by the Institute for Public Relations. I would like to thank the Institute for Public Relations and to specifically thank President & CEO Frank E. Ovaitt, Jr., for his support and encouragement of ethics research.
Kaynak
http://www.instituteforpr.org/topics/ethics-and-public-relations/
